Description
Every business leader, at some point in his or her career, will likely face a decision involving matters of organizational ethics. Leaders must find a way to make solid business decisions and yet remain faithful to ethical values; however, ethical values vary according to many factors, such as culture, situational considerations, and spiritual beliefs, among other things. In fact, it is not uncommon for people to say they are ethical and that they adhere to organizational policies and procedures while still making decisions frequently without consciously considering whether or not they are ethical. For you, as a global change agent, it is imperative to not only understand the importance of ethical decision making but also to begin gaining experience applying ethical frameworks as you analyze the consequences of ethical decisions in business settings.
This week, you will examine ethical dilemmas by applying ethical frameworks to a specific business case. Further, you will analyze the consequences of making ethical decisions within a given business environment.
Learning Objectives
Independent scholars will:
- Apply ethical frameworks to a business case
- Analyze the consequences of ethical decisions in a business setting
-
Required Readings
Northouse, P. G. (2016). Leadership: Theory and practice (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Chapter 13, “Leadership Ethics” (pp. 329–362)
Discussion: Applying Ethical Frameworks
Although the Ethics Resource Center conveyed, as of 2013, that 41% of employees reported having witnessed misconduct in the workplace—down from 45% in 2011—this percentage remains alarmingly significant (McGregor, 2014). In fact, these statistics seem to indicate an ongoing need to continue to strengthen commitment to ethical business practice. Business professionals and scholars need to know how to face ethical dilemmas and make sound ethical decisions. As a DBA independent scholar and global change agent, you should have a basic understanding of various ethical frameworks and understand how these frameworks influence real-world business decisions. Northouse (2016) stated, “Ethical theories that deal with the conduct of leaders are in turn divided into two kinds: theories that stress the consequences of leaders’ actions and those that emphasize the duty or rules governing leaders’ actions” (p. 333). Business leaders apply their ethical values daily for decision making in business. Understanding and analyzing various ethical frameworks can help you as you work to solve ethical dilemmas.To prepare for this Discussion, consider Case 13.2, “How Safe Is Safe?” on pages 351–352 of Northouse (2016) and review the Albert, Reynolds, and Turan (2015), Lawton and Páez (2015), Hoover and Pepper (2015), and Gustafson (2013) articles provided in this week’s Learning Resources.
By Day 3
Post your application of ethical frameworks to the ethical dilemma posed in the case study. In your application, do the following:
- Justify your proposed solution, and explain the reasoning you used to arrive at your solution.
- Incorporate the justifications you provided in response to the Case 13.2.
- Apply the ethical framework(s) outlined in the Learning Resources or in other scholarly literature that aligns with your reasoning. Explain how your reasoning aligns with those frameworks.
Be sure to support your work with a minimum of two specific citations from this week’s Learning Resources and one or more additional scholarly sources.Refer to the Week 6 Discussion Rubric for specific grading elements and criteria. Your Instructor will use this rubric to assess your work.
Leadership
Seventh Edition
To Laurel, Lisa, Madison, Scott, and Kallie
Leadership
Theory and Practice • Seventh Edition
Peter g.Northouse
Western Michigan University
For information:
Copyright 2016 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publisher.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
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SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd.
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#10-04 Samsung Hub
Singapore 049483
Leadershop : theory and practice/Peter Northouse,
Western Michigan University.—Seventh Edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4833-1753-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Leadership. 2. Leadership—Case studies. I. Title.
HM1261.N67 2015
303.3′4—dc23 2014044695
Acquisitions Editor: Maggie Stanley
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Associate Editor: Abbie Rickard
Editorial Assistant: Nicole Mangona
Production Editor: Libby Larson
Copy Editor: Melinda Masson
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreader: Sally Jaskold
Indexer: Sheila Bodell
Cover Designer: Gail Buschman
Marketing Manager: Liz Thornton
Digital Content Editor: Katie Bierach
15 16 17 18 19 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Brief Contents
Preface
1. Introduction
xvii
1
2. Trait Approach
19
4. Behavioral Approach
71
3. Skills Approach
5. Situational Approach
43
93
6. Path–Goal Theory
115
8. Transformational Leadership
161
7. Leader–Member Exchange Theory
9. Authentic Leadership
10. Servant Leadership
11. Adaptive Leadership
12. Psychodynamic Approach
13. Leadership Ethics
14. Team Leadership
15. Gender and Leadership
16. Culture and Leadership
137
195
225
257
295
329
363
397
427
Author Index
467
About the Author
491
Subject index
About the Contributors
477
493
Detailed Contents
Preface
xvii
1. Introduction
Leadership Defined
Ways of Conceptualizing Leadership
Definition and Components
Leadership Described
Trait Versus Process Leadership
Assigned Versus Emergent Leadership
Leadership and Power
Leadership and Coercion
Leadership and Management
Plan of the Book
Summary
References
1
2
5
6
7
7
8
10
12
13
15
16
17
2. Trait Approach
Description
Intelligence
Self-Confidence
Determination
Integrity
Sociability
Five-Factor Personality Model and Leadership
Emotional Intelligence
How Does the Trait Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
19
19
23
24
24
25
26
26
27
29
30
30
Application
Case Studies
Case 2.1 Choosing a New Director of Research
Case 2.2 A Remarkable Turnaround
Case 2.3 Recruiting for the Bank
Leadership Instrument
Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ)
Summary
References
32
32
33
34
36
37
38
40
41
3. Skills Approach
Description
Three-Skill Approach
Technical Skill
Human Skill
Conceptual Skill
Summary of the Three-Skill Approach
Skills Model
Competencies
Individual Attributes
Leadership Outcomes
Career Experiences
Environmental Influences
Summary of the Skills Model
How Does the Skills Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 3.1 A Strained Research Team
Case 3.2 A Shift for Lieutenant Colonel Adams
Case 3.3 Andy’s Recipe
Leadership Instrument
Skills Inventory
Summary
References
43
43
44
44
44
45
46
47
48
52
53
54
55
56
56
57
58
59
60
60
62
64
66
67
69
70
4. Behavioral Approach
Description
The Ohio State Studies
The University of Michigan Studies
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial (Leadership) Grid
Authority–Compliance (9,1)
71
71
72
73
74
75
Country-Club Management (1,9)
Impoverished Management (1,1)
Middle-of-the-Road Management (5,5)
Team Management (9,9)
Paternalism/Maternalism
Opportunism
How Does the Behavioral Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 4.1 A Drill Sergeant at First
Case 4.2 Eating Lunch Standing Up
Case 4.3 We Are Family
Leadership Instrument
Leadership Behavior Questionnaire
Summary
References
75
75
76
77
77
77
78
80
81
81
82
83
84
85
87
88
90
91
5. Situational Approach
Description
Leadership Styles
Development Levels
How Does the Situational Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 5.1 Marathon Runners at Different Levels
Case 5.2 Why Aren’t They Listening?
Case 5.3 Getting the Message Across
Leadership Instrument
Situational Leadership Questionnaire: Sample Items
Summary
References
93
93
94
96
97
98
99
102
103
103
105
107
108
109
112
113
6. Path–Goal Theory
Description
Leader Behaviors
Directive Leadership
Supportive Leadership
Participative Leadership
Achievement-Oriented Leadership
115
115
117
117
117
118
118
Follower Characteristics
Task Characteristics
How Does Path–Goal Theory Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 6.1 Three Shifts, Three Supervisors
Case 6.2 Direction for Some, Support for Others
Case 6.3 Playing in the Orchestra
Leadership Instrument
Path–Goal Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
References
118
119
120
122
123
124
125
126
128
129
132
133
135
136
7. Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Description
Early Studies
Later Studies
Leadership Making
How Does LMX Theory Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 7.1 His Team Gets the Best Assignments
Case 7.2 Working Hard at Being Fair
Case 7.3 Taking on Additional Responsibilities
Leadership Instrument
LMX 7 Questionnaire
Summary
References
137
137
137
140
142
144
145
146
148
149
150
151
152
154
155
157
158
8. Transformational Leadership
Description
Transformational Leadership Defined
Transformational Leadership and Charisma
A Model of Transformational Leadership
Transformational Leadership Factors
Transactional Leadership Factors
Nonleadership Factor
Other Transformational Perspectives
Bennis and Nanus
Kouzes and Posner
161
161
162
164
166
167
171
172
172
172
174
How Does the Transformational Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 8.1 The Vision Failed
Case 8.2 An Exploration in Leadership
Case 8.3 Her Vision of a Model Research Center
Leadership Instrument
Summary
References
175
176
178
180
181
181
183
185
187
190
191
9. Authentic Leadership
Description
Authentic Leadership Defined
Approaches to Authentic Leadership
Practical Approach
Theoretical Approach
How Does Authentic Leadership Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Applications
Case Studies
Case 9.1 Am I Really a Leader?
Case 9.2 A Leader Under Fire
Case 9.3 The Reluctant First Lady
Leadership Instrument
Authentic Leadership Self-Assessment Questionnaire
Summary
References
195
195
196
197
197
200
205
206
207
208
209
210
212
214
217
218
220
221
10. Servant Leadership
Description
Servant Leadership Defined
Historical Basis of Servant Leadership
Ten Characteristics of a Servant Leader
Building a Theory About Servant Leadership
Model of Servant Leadership
Antecedent Conditions
Servant Leader Behaviors
Outcomes
Summary of the Model of Servant Leadership
How Does Servant Leadership Work?
Strengths
225
225
226
226
227
229
231
231
233
236
238
238
239
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 10.1 Everyone Loves Mrs. Noble
Case 10.2 Doctor to the Poor
Case 10.3 Servant Leadership Takes Flight
Leadership Instrument
Servant Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
References
240
241
242
243
244
247
249
250
253
254
11. Adaptive Leadership
Description
Adaptive Leadership Defined
A Model of Adaptive Leadership
Situational Challenges
Leader Behaviors
Adaptive Work
How Does Adaptive Leadership Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 11.1 Silence, Stigma, and
Mental Illness
Case 11.2 Taming Bacchus
Case 11.3 Redskins No More
Leadership Instrument
Adaptive Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
References
257
257
258
260
261
263
273
274
275
276
277
279
12. Psychodynamic Approach
Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries and Alicia Cheak
Description
The Clinical Paradigm
History of the Psychodynamic Approach
Key Concepts and Dynamics Within the
Psychodynamic Approach
1. Focus on the Inner Theatre
2. Focus on the Leader-Follower
Relationships
3. Focus on the Shadow Side of Leadership
How Does the Psychodynamic Approach Work?
Strengths
295
279
281
283
286
287
292
293
295
296
297
301
301
302
305
305
306
Criticisms
Application
Group Coaching
Case Studies
Case 12.1 Dealing With Passive-Aggressives
Case 12.2 The Fear of Success
Case 12.3 Helping a Bipolar Leader
Leadership Instrument
The Leadership Archetype
Questionnaire (Abridged Version)
Summary
References
307
308
309
313
313
314
315
317
318
324
324
13. Leadership Ethics
Description
Ethics Defined
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Level 2. Conventional Morality
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
Ethical Theories
Centrality of Ethics to Leadership
Heifetz’s Perspective on Ethical Leadership
Burns’s Perspective on Ethical Leadership
The Dark Side of Leadership
Principles of Ethical Leadership
Ethical Leaders Respect Others
Ethical Leaders Serve Others
Ethical Leaders Are Just
Ethical Leaders Are Honest
Ethical Leaders Build Community
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 13.1 Choosing a Research Assistant
Case 13.2 How Safe Is Safe?
Case 13.3 Reexamining a Proposal
Leadership Instrument
Perceived Leader Integrity Scale (PLIS)
Summary
References
329
329
330
331
332
332
333
336
337
338
339
341
341
342
344
345
346
347
348
349
349
350
351
352
355
356
359
360
14. Team Leadership
Susan E. Kogler Hill
Description
363
363
Team Leadership Model
Team Effectiveness
Leadership Decisions
Leadership Actions
How Does the Team Leadership Model Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 14.1 Can This Virtual Team Work?
Case 14.2 They Dominated the Conversation
Case 14.3 Starts With a Bang, Ends With a Whimper
Leadership Instrument
Team Excellence and Collaborative
Team Leader Questionnaire
Summary
References
366
367
372
377
381
382
383
384
385
385
386
387
389
391
393
393
15. Gender and Leadership
Crystal L. Hoyt and Stefanie Simon
Description
The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth
Evidence of the Leadership Labyrinth
Understanding the Labyrinth
Gender Differences in Leadership Styles
and Effectiveness
Navigating the Labyrinth
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 15.1 The “Glass Ceiling”
Case 15.2 Lack of Inclusion and Credibility
Case 15.3 Pregnancy as a Barrier to Job Status
Leadership Instrument
The Gender–Leader Implicit Association Test
Summary
References
397
401
406
409
410
411
411
412
413
414
415
416
419
420
16. Culture and Leadership
Description
Culture Defined
Related Concepts
427
427
428
428
397
398
398
399
Ethnocentrism
Prejudice
Dimensions of Culture
Uncertainty Avoidance
Power Distance
Institutional Collectivism
In-Group Collectivism
Gender Egalitarianism
Assertiveness
Future Orientation
Performance Orientation
Humane Orientation
Clusters of World Cultures
Characteristics of Clusters
Anglo
Confucian Asia
Eastern Europe
Germanic Europe
Latin America
Latin Europe
Middle East
Nordic Europe
Southern Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Leadership Behavior and Culture Clusters
Eastern Europe Leadership Profile
Latin America Leadership Profile
Latin Europe Leadership Profile
Confucian Asia Leadership Profile
Nordic Europe Leadership Profile
Anglo Leadership Profile
Sub-Saharan Africa Leadership Profile
Southern Asia Leadership Profile
Germanic Europe Leadership Profile
Middle East Leadership Profile
Universally Desirable and Undesirable
Leadership Attributes
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 16.1 A Challenging Workplace
Case 16.2 A Special Kind of Financing
Case 16.3 Whose Hispanic Center Is It?
428
429
430
431
432
432
432
433
433
433
434
434
434
436
437
437
437
437
438
438
438
439
439
439
439
441
441
441
443
443
444
445
445
446
446
448
449
450
451
452
452
454
456
Leadership Instrument
Dimensions of Culture Questionnaire
Summary
References
458
459
464
465
Author Index
467
About the Author
491
About the Contributors
493
Subject index
477
Preface
This seventh edition of Leadership: Theory and Practice is written with the
objective of bridging the gap between the often-simplistic popular approaches
to leadership and the more abstract theoretical approaches. Like the previous
editions, this edition reviews and analyzes a selected number of leadership
theories, giving special attention to how each theoretical approach can be
applied in real-world organizations. In essence, my purpose is to explore how
leadership theory can inform and direct the way leadership is practiced.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
New to this volume is a chapter on adaptive leadership, which examines the
nature of adaptive leadership, its underpinnings, and how it works. The
chapter presents a definition, a model, and the latest research and applications of this emerging approach to leadership. In addition, the strengths and
weaknesses of the adaptive leadership approach are examined, and a questionnaire to help readers assess their own levels of adaptive leadership is
provided. Three case studies illustrating adaptive leadership are presented at
the end of the chapter.
This volume also presents an entirely new chapter on psychodynamic leadership written by a leading expert in the field, Manfred F. R. Kets De Vries,
and Alicia Cheak. Like the other chapters, this chapter provides a theoretical explanation of psychodynamic leadership, applications, cases studies, and
an assessment instrument.
This edition also includes an expanded discussion of the dark side of leadership and psuedotransformational leadership and the negative uses and
abuses of leadership. New research has been added throughout the book as
xvii
xviii Leadership Theory and Practice
well as many new case studies and examples that help students apply leadership concepts to contemporary settings.
This edition retains many special features from previous editions but has
been updated to include new research findings, figures and tables, and everyday applications for many leadership topics including leader–member
exchange theory, transformational and authentic leadership, team leadership,
the labyrinth of women’s leadership, and historical definitions of leadership.
The format of this edition parallels the format used in earlier editions. As
with previous editions, the overall goal of Leadership: Theory and Practice is
to advance our understanding of the many different approaches to leadership
and ways to practice it more effectively.
Special Features
Although this text presents and analyzes a wide range of leadership
research, every attempt has been made to present the material in a clear,
concise, and interesting manner. Reviewers of the book have consistently
commented that clarity is one of its major strengths. In addition to the
writing style, several other features of the book help make it user-friendly.
• Each chapter follows the same format: It is structured to include first
theory and then practice.
• Every chapter contains a discussion of the strengths and criticisms of
the approach under consideration, and assists the reader in determining the relative merits of each approach.
• Each chapter includes an application section that discusses the practical aspects of the approach and how it could be used in today’s
organizational settings.
• Three case studies are provided in each chapter to illustrate common
leadership issues and dilemmas. Thought-provoking questions follow
each case study, helping readers to interpret the case.
• A questionnaire is provided in each of the chapters to help the reader
apply the approach to his or her own leadership style or setting.
• Figures and tables illustrate the content of the theory and make the
ideas more meaningful.
Through these special features, every effort has been made to make this text
substantive, understandable, and practical.
Preface xix
Audience
This book provides both an in-depth presentation of leadership theory and
a discussion of how it applies to real-life situations. Thus, it is intended for
undergraduate and graduate classes in management, leadership studies,
business, educational leadership, public administration, nursing and allied
health, social work, criminal justice, industrial and organizational psychology, communication, religion, agricultural education, political and military
science, and training and development. It is particularly well suited as a
supplementary text for core organizational behavior courses or as an overview text within MBA curricula. This book would also be useful as a text in
student activities, continuing education, in-service training, and other
leadership-development programs.
Instructor Teaching Site
SAGE edge for Instructors, a password-protected instructor resource site,
supports teaching by making it easy to integrate quality content and create
a rich learning environment for students. The test banks, which have been
expanded for this edition, include multiple-choice and true/false questions
to test comprehension, as well as essay questions that ask students to apply
the material. An electronic test bank, compatible with PCs and Macs
through Diploma software, is also available. Chapter-specific resources
include PowerPoint slides, study and discussion questions, suggested exercises, full-text journal articles, and video and audio links. General resources
include course-long projects, sample syllabi, film resources, and case notes.
Printable PDF versions of the questionnaires from the text are included for
instructors to print and distribute for classroom use. A course cartridge
includes assets found on the Instructor Teaching Site and the Student Study
Site, as well as a bonus quiz for each chapter in the book—all in an easy-toupload package. Go to edge.sagepub.com/northouse7e to access the companion site.
Student Study Site
SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help students
accomplish their coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.
Mobile-friendly eFlashcards and practice quizzes strengthen understanding
of key terms and concepts and allow for independent assessment by students
of their mastery of course material. A customized online action plan includes
xx Leadership Theory and Practice
tips and feedback on progress through the course and materials, which
allows students to individualize their learning experience. Learning objectives, multimedia links, discussion questions, and SAGE journal articles help
students study and reinforce the most important material. Students can go
to edge.sagepub.com/northouse7e to access the site.
Media Icons
Icons appearing at the bottom of the page will direct you to online media
such as videos, audio links, journal articles, and reference articles that correspond with key chapter concepts. Visit the Student Study Site at edge.
sagepub.com/northouse7e to access this media.
icons
Northouse on Leadership
SAGE Journal Article
Audio
Reference Article
Video
Acknowledgments
Many people directly or indirectly contributed to the development of the
seventh edition of Leadership: Theory and Practice. First, I would like to
acknowledge my editor, Maggie Stanley, and her talented team at SAGE
Publications (Nicole, Abbie, MaryAnn, Liz, Katie, and Lauren) who have
contributed significantly to the quality of this edition and ensured its success. For their very capable work during the production phase, I would like
to thank copy editor Melinda Masson, and senior project editor Libby Larson. In her own unique way, each of these people made valuable contributions to the seventh edition.
For comprehensive reviews of the seventh edition, I would like to thank the
following reviewers:
Meera Alagaraja, University of Louisville
Mel Albin, Excelsior College
Thomas Batsching, Reutlingen University
Cheryl Beeler, Angelo State University
Mark D. Bowman, Methodist University
Dianne Burns, University of Manchester
Eric Buschlen, Central Michigan University
Steven Bryant, Drury University
Daniel Calhoun, Georgia Southern University
David Conrad, Augsburg College
Joyce Cousins, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
xxi
xxii Leadership Theory and Practice
Denise Danna, LSUHSC School of Nursing
S. Todd Deal, Georgia Southern University
Caroline S. Fulmer, University of Alabama
Greig A. Gjerdalen, Capilano University
Andrew Gonzales, University of California, Irvine
Carl Holschen, Missouri Baptist University
Kiran Ismail, St. John’s University
Irma Jones, University of Texas at Brownsville
Michele D. Kegley, University of Cincinnati, Blue Ash College
David Lees, University of Derby
David S. McClain, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Carol McMillan, New School University
Richard Milter, Johns Hopkins University
Christopher Neck, Arizona State University–Tempe
Keeok Park, University of La Verne
Richard Parkman, University of Plymouth
Chaminda S. Prelis, University of Dubuque
Casey Rae, George Fox University
Noel Ronan, Waterford Institute of Technology
Louis Rubino, California State University, Northridge
Shadia Sachedina, Baruch College (School of Public Affairs)
Harriet L. Schwartz, Carlow University
Kelli K. Smith, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
David Swenson, The College of St. Scholastica
Danny L. Talbot, Washington State University
Robert L. Taylor, University of Louisville
Precious Taylor-Clifton, Cambridge College
John Tummons, University of Missouri
Acknowledgments xxiii
Kristi Tyran, Western Washington University
Tamara Von George, Granite State College
Natalie Walker, Seminole State College
William Welch, Bowie State University
David E. Williams, Texas Tech University
Tony Wohlers, Cameron University
Sharon A. Wulf, Worcester Polytechnic Institute School of Business
Alec Zama, Grand View University
Xia Zhao, California State University, Dominguez Hills
I would like to thank, for their exceptional work on the leadership profile
tool and the ancillaries, Isolde Anderson (Hope College), John Baker
(Western Kentucky University), Renee Kosiarek (North Central College)
and Lisa Burgoon (University of Illinois), and for his feedback in the construction and scoring of the adaptive leadership questionnaire, Paul Yelsma
(Western Michigan University).
A special acknowledgment goes to Laurel Northouse for her insightful
critiques and ongoing support. In addition, I am grateful to Marie Lee, for
her exceptional editing and guidance throughout this project. For their
reviews of and comments on the adaptive leadership chapter, I am indebted
to Sarah Chace (Marian University), Carl Larson (University of Denver),
and Chip Bailey (Duke University).
Finally, I would like to thank the many undergraduate and graduate students
whom I have taught through the years. Their ongoing feedback has helped
clarify my thinking about leadership and encouraged me to make plain the
practical implications of leadership theories.
SAGE was founded in 1965 by Sara Miller McCune to
support the dissemination of usable knowledge by publishing
innovative and high-quality research and teaching content.
Today, we publish more than 750 journals, including those
of more than 300 learned societies, more than 800 new
books per year, and a growing range of library products
including archives, data, case studies, reports, conference
highlights, and video. SAGE remains majority-owned by our
founder, and after Sara’s lifetime will become owned by a
charitable trust that secures our continued independence.
Los Angeles | London | Washington DC | New Delhi | Singapore | Boston
1
Introduction
L
eadership is a highly sought-after and highly valued commodity. In the
15 years since the first edition of this book was published, the public
has become increasingly captivated by the idea of leadership. People continue to ask themselves and others what makes good leaders. As individuals,
they seek more information on how to become effective leaders. As a result,
bookstore shelves are filled with popular books about leaders and advice on
how to be a leader. Many people believe that leadership is a way to improve
their personal, social, and professional lives. Corporations seek those with
leadership ability because they believe they bring special assets to their
organizations and, ultimately, improve the bottom line. Academic institutions throughout the country have responded by providing programs in
leadership studies.
In addition, leadership has gained the attention of researchers worldwide. A
review of the scholarly studies on leadership shows that there is a wide variety
of different theoretical approaches to explain the complexities of the leadership process (e.g., Bass, 1990; Bryman, 1992; Bryman, Collinson, Grint, Jackson, & Uhl-Bien, 2011; Day & Antonakis, 2012; Gardner, 1990; Hickman,
2009; Mumford, 2006; Rost, 1991). Some researchers conceptualize leadership as a trait or as a behavior, whereas others view leadership from an information-processing perspective or relational standpoint. Leadership has been
studied using both qualitative and quantitative methods in many contexts,
including small groups, therapeutic groups, and large organizations. Collectively, the research findings on leadership from all of these areas provide a
picture of a process that is far more sophisticated and complex than the oftensimplistic view presented in some of the popular books on leadership.
This book treats leadership as a complex process having multiple dimensions.
Based on the research literature, this text provides an in-depth description
Leadership Defined
Role of Leadership
2 Leadership Theory and Practice
and application of many different approaches to leadership. Our emphasis is
on how theory can inform the practice of leadership. In this book, we describe
each theory and then explain how the theory can be used in real situations.
Leadership Defined______________________________
There are many ways to finish the sentence “Leadership is . . .” In fact, as
Stogdill (1974, p. 7) pointed out in a review of leadership research, there are
almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are people who
have tried to define it. It is much like the words democracy, love, and peace.
Although each of us intuitively knows what we mean by such words, the
words can have different meanings for different people. As Box 1.1 shows,
scholars and practitioners have attempted to define leadership for more
than a century without universal consensus.
Box 1.1 The Evolution of Leadership
Definitions
While many have a gut-level grasp of what leadership is, putting a
definition to the term has proved to be a challenging endeavor for
scholars and practitioners alike. More than a century has lapsed since
leadership became a topic of academic introspection, and definitions
have evolved continuously during that period. These definitions have
been influenced by many factors from world affairs and politics to the
perspectives of the discipline in which the topic is being studied. In a
seminal work, Rost (1991) analyzed materials written from 1900 to
1990, finding more than 200 different definitions for leadership. His
analysis provides a succinct history of how leadership has been
defined through the last century:
1900–1929
Definitions of leadership appearing in the first three decades of the
20th century emphasized control and centralization of power with a
common theme of domination. For example, at a conference on leadership in 1927, leadership was defined as “the ability to impress the
will of the leader on those led and induce obedience, respect, loyalty,
and cooperation” (Moore, 1927, p. 124).
Defining Leadership
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
1930s
Traits became the focus of defining leadership, with an emerging view
of leadership as influence rather than domination. Leadership was
also identified as the interaction of an individual’s specific personality
traits with those of a group; it was noted that while the attitudes and
activities of the many may be changed by the one, the many may also
influence a leader.
1940s
The group approach came into the forefront with leadership being
defined as the behavior of an individual while involved in directing
group activities (Hemphill, 1949). At the same time, leadership by
persuasion was distinguished from “drivership” or leadership by coercion (Copeland, 1942).
1950s
Three themes dominated leadership definitions during this decade:
• continuance of group theory, which framed leadership as what
leaders do in groups;
• leadership as a relationship that develops shared goals, which
defined leadership based on behavior of the leader; and
• effectiveness, in which leadership was defined by the ability to
influence overall group effectiveness.
1960s
Although a tumultuous time for world affairs, the 1960s saw harmony
amongst leadership scholars. The prevailing definition of leadership
as behavior that influences people toward shared goals was underscored by Seeman (1960) who described leadership as “acts by persons
which influence other persons in a shared direction” (p. 53).
1970s
The group focus gave way to the organizational behavior approach,
where leadership became viewed as “initiating and maintaining groups
or organizations to accomplish group or organizational goals” (Rost,
1991, p. 59). Burns’s (1978) definition, however, was the most important
concept of leadership to emerge: “Leadership is the reciprocal process
(Continued)
Leadership in Nursing
4 Leadership Theory and Practice
(Continued)
of mobilizing by persons with certain motives and values, various economic, political, and other resources, in a context of competition and
conflict, in order to realize goals independently or mutually held by
both leaders and followers” (p. 425).
1980s
This decade exploded with scholarly and popular works on the nature
of leadership, bringing the topic to the apex of the academic and
public consciousnesses. As a result, the number of definitions for leadership became a prolific stew with several persevering themes:
• Do as the leader wishes. Leadership definitions still predominantly delivered the message that leadership is getting followers
to do what the leader wants done.
• Influence. Probably the most often used word in leadership
definitions of the 1980s, influence was examined from every
angle. In an effort to distinguish leadership from management, however, scholars insisted that leadership is noncoercive
influence.
• Traits. Spurred by the national best seller In Search of Excellence
(Peters & Waterman, 1982), the leadership-as-excellence movement brought leader traits back to the spotlight. As a result,
many people’s understanding of leadership is based on a trait
orientation.
• Transformation. Burns (1978) is credited for initiating a movement defining leadership as a transformational process, stating
that leadership occurs “when one or more persons engage with
others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another
to higher levels of motivation and morality” (p. 83).
Into the 21st Century
Debate continues as to whether leadership and management are
separate processes, but emerging research emphasizes the process of
leadership, whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to
achieve a common goal, rather than developing new ways of defining
leadership. Among these emerging leadership approaches are
• authentic leadership, in which the authenticity of leaders and
their leadership is emphasized;
• spiritual leadership, which focuses on leadership that utilizes
values and sense of calling and membership to motivate
followers;
The Future of Leadership
Working Across Generations
Chapter 1 Introduction 5
• servant leadership, which puts the leader in the role of servant,
who utilizes “caring principles” to focus on followers’ needs to
help these followers become more autonomous, knowledgeable, and like servants themselves; and
• adaptive leadership, in which leaders encourage followers to
adapt by confronting and solving problems, challenges, and
changes.
After decades of dissonance, leadership scholars agree on one
thing: They can’t come up with a common definition for leadership.
Because of such factors as growing global influences and generational
differences, leadership will continue to have different meanings for
different people. The bottom line is that leadership is a complex concept for which a determined definition may long be in flux.
Source: Adapted from Leadership for the Twenty-First Century, by J. C. Rost, 1991,
New York: Praeger.
Ways of Conceptualizing Leadership
In the past 60 years, as many as 65 different classification systems have been
developed to define the dimension
Seventh Edition
To Laurel, Lisa, Madison, Scott, and Kallie
Leadership
Theory and Practice • Seventh Edition
Peter g.Northouse
Western Michigan University
For information:
Copyright 2016 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Leadershop : theory and practice/Peter Northouse,
Western Michigan University.—Seventh Edition.
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Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4833-1753-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Leadership. 2. Leadership—Case studies. I. Title.
HM1261.N67 2015
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15 16 17 18 19 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Brief Contents
Preface
1. Introduction
xvii
1
2. Trait Approach
19
4. Behavioral Approach
71
3. Skills Approach
5. Situational Approach
43
93
6. Path–Goal Theory
115
8. Transformational Leadership
161
7. Leader–Member Exchange Theory
9. Authentic Leadership
10. Servant Leadership
11. Adaptive Leadership
12. Psychodynamic Approach
13. Leadership Ethics
14. Team Leadership
15. Gender and Leadership
16. Culture and Leadership
137
195
225
257
295
329
363
397
427
Author Index
467
About the Author
491
Subject index
About the Contributors
477
493
Detailed Contents
Preface
xvii
1. Introduction
Leadership Defined
Ways of Conceptualizing Leadership
Definition and Components
Leadership Described
Trait Versus Process Leadership
Assigned Versus Emergent Leadership
Leadership and Power
Leadership and Coercion
Leadership and Management
Plan of the Book
Summary
References
1
2
5
6
7
7
8
10
12
13
15
16
17
2. Trait Approach
Description
Intelligence
Self-Confidence
Determination
Integrity
Sociability
Five-Factor Personality Model and Leadership
Emotional Intelligence
How Does the Trait Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
19
19
23
24
24
25
26
26
27
29
30
30
Application
Case Studies
Case 2.1 Choosing a New Director of Research
Case 2.2 A Remarkable Turnaround
Case 2.3 Recruiting for the Bank
Leadership Instrument
Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ)
Summary
References
32
32
33
34
36
37
38
40
41
3. Skills Approach
Description
Three-Skill Approach
Technical Skill
Human Skill
Conceptual Skill
Summary of the Three-Skill Approach
Skills Model
Competencies
Individual Attributes
Leadership Outcomes
Career Experiences
Environmental Influences
Summary of the Skills Model
How Does the Skills Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 3.1 A Strained Research Team
Case 3.2 A Shift for Lieutenant Colonel Adams
Case 3.3 Andy’s Recipe
Leadership Instrument
Skills Inventory
Summary
References
43
43
44
44
44
45
46
47
48
52
53
54
55
56
56
57
58
59
60
60
62
64
66
67
69
70
4. Behavioral Approach
Description
The Ohio State Studies
The University of Michigan Studies
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial (Leadership) Grid
Authority–Compliance (9,1)
71
71
72
73
74
75
Country-Club Management (1,9)
Impoverished Management (1,1)
Middle-of-the-Road Management (5,5)
Team Management (9,9)
Paternalism/Maternalism
Opportunism
How Does the Behavioral Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 4.1 A Drill Sergeant at First
Case 4.2 Eating Lunch Standing Up
Case 4.3 We Are Family
Leadership Instrument
Leadership Behavior Questionnaire
Summary
References
75
75
76
77
77
77
78
80
81
81
82
83
84
85
87
88
90
91
5. Situational Approach
Description
Leadership Styles
Development Levels
How Does the Situational Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 5.1 Marathon Runners at Different Levels
Case 5.2 Why Aren’t They Listening?
Case 5.3 Getting the Message Across
Leadership Instrument
Situational Leadership Questionnaire: Sample Items
Summary
References
93
93
94
96
97
98
99
102
103
103
105
107
108
109
112
113
6. Path–Goal Theory
Description
Leader Behaviors
Directive Leadership
Supportive Leadership
Participative Leadership
Achievement-Oriented Leadership
115
115
117
117
117
118
118
Follower Characteristics
Task Characteristics
How Does Path–Goal Theory Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 6.1 Three Shifts, Three Supervisors
Case 6.2 Direction for Some, Support for Others
Case 6.3 Playing in the Orchestra
Leadership Instrument
Path–Goal Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
References
118
119
120
122
123
124
125
126
128
129
132
133
135
136
7. Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Description
Early Studies
Later Studies
Leadership Making
How Does LMX Theory Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 7.1 His Team Gets the Best Assignments
Case 7.2 Working Hard at Being Fair
Case 7.3 Taking on Additional Responsibilities
Leadership Instrument
LMX 7 Questionnaire
Summary
References
137
137
137
140
142
144
145
146
148
149
150
151
152
154
155
157
158
8. Transformational Leadership
Description
Transformational Leadership Defined
Transformational Leadership and Charisma
A Model of Transformational Leadership
Transformational Leadership Factors
Transactional Leadership Factors
Nonleadership Factor
Other Transformational Perspectives
Bennis and Nanus
Kouzes and Posner
161
161
162
164
166
167
171
172
172
172
174
How Does the Transformational Approach Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 8.1 The Vision Failed
Case 8.2 An Exploration in Leadership
Case 8.3 Her Vision of a Model Research Center
Leadership Instrument
Summary
References
175
176
178
180
181
181
183
185
187
190
191
9. Authentic Leadership
Description
Authentic Leadership Defined
Approaches to Authentic Leadership
Practical Approach
Theoretical Approach
How Does Authentic Leadership Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Applications
Case Studies
Case 9.1 Am I Really a Leader?
Case 9.2 A Leader Under Fire
Case 9.3 The Reluctant First Lady
Leadership Instrument
Authentic Leadership Self-Assessment Questionnaire
Summary
References
195
195
196
197
197
200
205
206
207
208
209
210
212
214
217
218
220
221
10. Servant Leadership
Description
Servant Leadership Defined
Historical Basis of Servant Leadership
Ten Characteristics of a Servant Leader
Building a Theory About Servant Leadership
Model of Servant Leadership
Antecedent Conditions
Servant Leader Behaviors
Outcomes
Summary of the Model of Servant Leadership
How Does Servant Leadership Work?
Strengths
225
225
226
226
227
229
231
231
233
236
238
238
239
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 10.1 Everyone Loves Mrs. Noble
Case 10.2 Doctor to the Poor
Case 10.3 Servant Leadership Takes Flight
Leadership Instrument
Servant Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
References
240
241
242
243
244
247
249
250
253
254
11. Adaptive Leadership
Description
Adaptive Leadership Defined
A Model of Adaptive Leadership
Situational Challenges
Leader Behaviors
Adaptive Work
How Does Adaptive Leadership Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 11.1 Silence, Stigma, and
Mental Illness
Case 11.2 Taming Bacchus
Case 11.3 Redskins No More
Leadership Instrument
Adaptive Leadership Questionnaire
Summary
References
257
257
258
260
261
263
273
274
275
276
277
279
12. Psychodynamic Approach
Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries and Alicia Cheak
Description
The Clinical Paradigm
History of the Psychodynamic Approach
Key Concepts and Dynamics Within the
Psychodynamic Approach
1. Focus on the Inner Theatre
2. Focus on the Leader-Follower
Relationships
3. Focus on the Shadow Side of Leadership
How Does the Psychodynamic Approach Work?
Strengths
295
279
281
283
286
287
292
293
295
296
297
301
301
302
305
305
306
Criticisms
Application
Group Coaching
Case Studies
Case 12.1 Dealing With Passive-Aggressives
Case 12.2 The Fear of Success
Case 12.3 Helping a Bipolar Leader
Leadership Instrument
The Leadership Archetype
Questionnaire (Abridged Version)
Summary
References
307
308
309
313
313
314
315
317
318
324
324
13. Leadership Ethics
Description
Ethics Defined
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Level 2. Conventional Morality
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
Ethical Theories
Centrality of Ethics to Leadership
Heifetz’s Perspective on Ethical Leadership
Burns’s Perspective on Ethical Leadership
The Dark Side of Leadership
Principles of Ethical Leadership
Ethical Leaders Respect Others
Ethical Leaders Serve Others
Ethical Leaders Are Just
Ethical Leaders Are Honest
Ethical Leaders Build Community
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 13.1 Choosing a Research Assistant
Case 13.2 How Safe Is Safe?
Case 13.3 Reexamining a Proposal
Leadership Instrument
Perceived Leader Integrity Scale (PLIS)
Summary
References
329
329
330
331
332
332
333
336
337
338
339
341
341
342
344
345
346
347
348
349
349
350
351
352
355
356
359
360
14. Team Leadership
Susan E. Kogler Hill
Description
363
363
Team Leadership Model
Team Effectiveness
Leadership Decisions
Leadership Actions
How Does the Team Leadership Model Work?
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 14.1 Can This Virtual Team Work?
Case 14.2 They Dominated the Conversation
Case 14.3 Starts With a Bang, Ends With a Whimper
Leadership Instrument
Team Excellence and Collaborative
Team Leader Questionnaire
Summary
References
366
367
372
377
381
382
383
384
385
385
386
387
389
391
393
393
15. Gender and Leadership
Crystal L. Hoyt and Stefanie Simon
Description
The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth
Evidence of the Leadership Labyrinth
Understanding the Labyrinth
Gender Differences in Leadership Styles
and Effectiveness
Navigating the Labyrinth
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 15.1 The “Glass Ceiling”
Case 15.2 Lack of Inclusion and Credibility
Case 15.3 Pregnancy as a Barrier to Job Status
Leadership Instrument
The Gender–Leader Implicit Association Test
Summary
References
397
401
406
409
410
411
411
412
413
414
415
416
419
420
16. Culture and Leadership
Description
Culture Defined
Related Concepts
427
427
428
428
397
398
398
399
Ethnocentrism
Prejudice
Dimensions of Culture
Uncertainty Avoidance
Power Distance
Institutional Collectivism
In-Group Collectivism
Gender Egalitarianism
Assertiveness
Future Orientation
Performance Orientation
Humane Orientation
Clusters of World Cultures
Characteristics of Clusters
Anglo
Confucian Asia
Eastern Europe
Germanic Europe
Latin America
Latin Europe
Middle East
Nordic Europe
Southern Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Leadership Behavior and Culture Clusters
Eastern Europe Leadership Profile
Latin America Leadership Profile
Latin Europe Leadership Profile
Confucian Asia Leadership Profile
Nordic Europe Leadership Profile
Anglo Leadership Profile
Sub-Saharan Africa Leadership Profile
Southern Asia Leadership Profile
Germanic Europe Leadership Profile
Middle East Leadership Profile
Universally Desirable and Undesirable
Leadership Attributes
Strengths
Criticisms
Application
Case Studies
Case 16.1 A Challenging Workplace
Case 16.2 A Special Kind of Financing
Case 16.3 Whose Hispanic Center Is It?
428
429
430
431
432
432
432
433
433
433
434
434
434
436
437
437
437
437
438
438
438
439
439
439
439
441
441
441
443
443
444
445
445
446
446
448
449
450
451
452
452
454
456
Leadership Instrument
Dimensions of Culture Questionnaire
Summary
References
458
459
464
465
Author Index
467
About the Author
491
About the Contributors
493
Subject index
477
Preface
This seventh edition of Leadership: Theory and Practice is written with the
objective of bridging the gap between the often-simplistic popular approaches
to leadership and the more abstract theoretical approaches. Like the previous
editions, this edition reviews and analyzes a selected number of leadership
theories, giving special attention to how each theoretical approach can be
applied in real-world organizations. In essence, my purpose is to explore how
leadership theory can inform and direct the way leadership is practiced.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
New to this volume is a chapter on adaptive leadership, which examines the
nature of adaptive leadership, its underpinnings, and how it works. The
chapter presents a definition, a model, and the latest research and applications of this emerging approach to leadership. In addition, the strengths and
weaknesses of the adaptive leadership approach are examined, and a questionnaire to help readers assess their own levels of adaptive leadership is
provided. Three case studies illustrating adaptive leadership are presented at
the end of the chapter.
This volume also presents an entirely new chapter on psychodynamic leadership written by a leading expert in the field, Manfred F. R. Kets De Vries,
and Alicia Cheak. Like the other chapters, this chapter provides a theoretical explanation of psychodynamic leadership, applications, cases studies, and
an assessment instrument.
This edition also includes an expanded discussion of the dark side of leadership and psuedotransformational leadership and the negative uses and
abuses of leadership. New research has been added throughout the book as
xvii
xviii Leadership Theory and Practice
well as many new case studies and examples that help students apply leadership concepts to contemporary settings.
This edition retains many special features from previous editions but has
been updated to include new research findings, figures and tables, and everyday applications for many leadership topics including leader–member
exchange theory, transformational and authentic leadership, team leadership,
the labyrinth of women’s leadership, and historical definitions of leadership.
The format of this edition parallels the format used in earlier editions. As
with previous editions, the overall goal of Leadership: Theory and Practice is
to advance our understanding of the many different approaches to leadership
and ways to practice it more effectively.
Special Features
Although this text presents and analyzes a wide range of leadership
research, every attempt has been made to present the material in a clear,
concise, and interesting manner. Reviewers of the book have consistently
commented that clarity is one of its major strengths. In addition to the
writing style, several other features of the book help make it user-friendly.
• Each chapter follows the same format: It is structured to include first
theory and then practice.
• Every chapter contains a discussion of the strengths and criticisms of
the approach under consideration, and assists the reader in determining the relative merits of each approach.
• Each chapter includes an application section that discusses the practical aspects of the approach and how it could be used in today’s
organizational settings.
• Three case studies are provided in each chapter to illustrate common
leadership issues and dilemmas. Thought-provoking questions follow
each case study, helping readers to interpret the case.
• A questionnaire is provided in each of the chapters to help the reader
apply the approach to his or her own leadership style or setting.
• Figures and tables illustrate the content of the theory and make the
ideas more meaningful.
Through these special features, every effort has been made to make this text
substantive, understandable, and practical.
Preface xix
Audience
This book provides both an in-depth presentation of leadership theory and
a discussion of how it applies to real-life situations. Thus, it is intended for
undergraduate and graduate classes in management, leadership studies,
business, educational leadership, public administration, nursing and allied
health, social work, criminal justice, industrial and organizational psychology, communication, religion, agricultural education, political and military
science, and training and development. It is particularly well suited as a
supplementary text for core organizational behavior courses or as an overview text within MBA curricula. This book would also be useful as a text in
student activities, continuing education, in-service training, and other
leadership-development programs.
Instructor Teaching Site
SAGE edge for Instructors, a password-protected instructor resource site,
supports teaching by making it easy to integrate quality content and create
a rich learning environment for students. The test banks, which have been
expanded for this edition, include multiple-choice and true/false questions
to test comprehension, as well as essay questions that ask students to apply
the material. An electronic test bank, compatible with PCs and Macs
through Diploma software, is also available. Chapter-specific resources
include PowerPoint slides, study and discussion questions, suggested exercises, full-text journal articles, and video and audio links. General resources
include course-long projects, sample syllabi, film resources, and case notes.
Printable PDF versions of the questionnaires from the text are included for
instructors to print and distribute for classroom use. A course cartridge
includes assets found on the Instructor Teaching Site and the Student Study
Site, as well as a bonus quiz for each chapter in the book—all in an easy-toupload package. Go to edge.sagepub.com/northouse7e to access the companion site.
Student Study Site
SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help students
accomplish their coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment.
Mobile-friendly eFlashcards and practice quizzes strengthen understanding
of key terms and concepts and allow for independent assessment by students
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xx Leadership Theory and Practice
tips and feedback on progress through the course and materials, which
allows students to individualize their learning experience. Learning objectives, multimedia links, discussion questions, and SAGE journal articles help
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to edge.sagepub.com/northouse7e to access the site.
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Northouse on Leadership
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Acknowledgments
Many people directly or indirectly contributed to the development of the
seventh edition of Leadership: Theory and Practice. First, I would like to
acknowledge my editor, Maggie Stanley, and her talented team at SAGE
Publications (Nicole, Abbie, MaryAnn, Liz, Katie, and Lauren) who have
contributed significantly to the quality of this edition and ensured its success. For their very capable work during the production phase, I would like
to thank copy editor Melinda Masson, and senior project editor Libby Larson. In her own unique way, each of these people made valuable contributions to the seventh edition.
For comprehensive reviews of the seventh edition, I would like to thank the
following reviewers:
Meera Alagaraja, University of Louisville
Mel Albin, Excelsior College
Thomas Batsching, Reutlingen University
Cheryl Beeler, Angelo State University
Mark D. Bowman, Methodist University
Dianne Burns, University of Manchester
Eric Buschlen, Central Michigan University
Steven Bryant, Drury University
Daniel Calhoun, Georgia Southern University
David Conrad, Augsburg College
Joyce Cousins, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
xxi
xxii Leadership Theory and Practice
Denise Danna, LSUHSC School of Nursing
S. Todd Deal, Georgia Southern University
Caroline S. Fulmer, University of Alabama
Greig A. Gjerdalen, Capilano University
Andrew Gonzales, University of California, Irvine
Carl Holschen, Missouri Baptist University
Kiran Ismail, St. John’s University
Irma Jones, University of Texas at Brownsville
Michele D. Kegley, University of Cincinnati, Blue Ash College
David Lees, University of Derby
David S. McClain, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Carol McMillan, New School University
Richard Milter, Johns Hopkins University
Christopher Neck, Arizona State University–Tempe
Keeok Park, University of La Verne
Richard Parkman, University of Plymouth
Chaminda S. Prelis, University of Dubuque
Casey Rae, George Fox University
Noel Ronan, Waterford Institute of Technology
Louis Rubino, California State University, Northridge
Shadia Sachedina, Baruch College (School of Public Affairs)
Harriet L. Schwartz, Carlow University
Kelli K. Smith, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
David Swenson, The College of St. Scholastica
Danny L. Talbot, Washington State University
Robert L. Taylor, University of Louisville
Precious Taylor-Clifton, Cambridge College
John Tummons, University of Missouri
Acknowledgments xxiii
Kristi Tyran, Western Washington University
Tamara Von George, Granite State College
Natalie Walker, Seminole State College
William Welch, Bowie State University
David E. Williams, Texas Tech University
Tony Wohlers, Cameron University
Sharon A. Wulf, Worcester Polytechnic Institute School of Business
Alec Zama, Grand View University
Xia Zhao, California State University, Dominguez Hills
I would like to thank, for their exceptional work on the leadership profile
tool and the ancillaries, Isolde Anderson (Hope College), John Baker
(Western Kentucky University), Renee Kosiarek (North Central College)
and Lisa Burgoon (University of Illinois), and for his feedback in the construction and scoring of the adaptive leadership questionnaire, Paul Yelsma
(Western Michigan University).
A special acknowledgment goes to Laurel Northouse for her insightful
critiques and ongoing support. In addition, I am grateful to Marie Lee, for
her exceptional editing and guidance throughout this project. For their
reviews of and comments on the adaptive leadership chapter, I am indebted
to Sarah Chace (Marian University), Carl Larson (University of Denver),
and Chip Bailey (Duke University).
Finally, I would like to thank the many undergraduate and graduate students
whom I have taught through the years. Their ongoing feedback has helped
clarify my thinking about leadership and encouraged me to make plain the
practical implications of leadership theories.
SAGE was founded in 1965 by Sara Miller McCune to
support the dissemination of usable knowledge by publishing
innovative and high-quality research and teaching content.
Today, we publish more than 750 journals, including those
of more than 300 learned societies, more than 800 new
books per year, and a growing range of library products
including archives, data, case studies, reports, conference
highlights, and video. SAGE remains majority-owned by our
founder, and after Sara’s lifetime will become owned by a
charitable trust that secures our continued independence.
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1
Introduction
L
eadership is a highly sought-after and highly valued commodity. In the
15 years since the first edition of this book was published, the public
has become increasingly captivated by the idea of leadership. People continue to ask themselves and others what makes good leaders. As individuals,
they seek more information on how to become effective leaders. As a result,
bookstore shelves are filled with popular books about leaders and advice on
how to be a leader. Many people believe that leadership is a way to improve
their personal, social, and professional lives. Corporations seek those with
leadership ability because they believe they bring special assets to their
organizations and, ultimately, improve the bottom line. Academic institutions throughout the country have responded by providing programs in
leadership studies.
In addition, leadership has gained the attention of researchers worldwide. A
review of the scholarly studies on leadership shows that there is a wide variety
of different theoretical approaches to explain the complexities of the leadership process (e.g., Bass, 1990; Bryman, 1992; Bryman, Collinson, Grint, Jackson, & Uhl-Bien, 2011; Day & Antonakis, 2012; Gardner, 1990; Hickman,
2009; Mumford, 2006; Rost, 1991). Some researchers conceptualize leadership as a trait or as a behavior, whereas others view leadership from an information-processing perspective or relational standpoint. Leadership has been
studied using both qualitative and quantitative methods in many contexts,
including small groups, therapeutic groups, and large organizations. Collectively, the research findings on leadership from all of these areas provide a
picture of a process that is far more sophisticated and complex than the oftensimplistic view presented in some of the popular books on leadership.
This book treats leadership as a complex process having multiple dimensions.
Based on the research literature, this text provides an in-depth description
Leadership Defined
Role of Leadership
2 Leadership Theory and Practice
and application of many different approaches to leadership. Our emphasis is
on how theory can inform the practice of leadership. In this book, we describe
each theory and then explain how the theory can be used in real situations.
Leadership Defined______________________________
There are many ways to finish the sentence “Leadership is . . .” In fact, as
Stogdill (1974, p. 7) pointed out in a review of leadership research, there are
almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are people who
have tried to define it. It is much like the words democracy, love, and peace.
Although each of us intuitively knows what we mean by such words, the
words can have different meanings for different people. As Box 1.1 shows,
scholars and practitioners have attempted to define leadership for more
than a century without universal consensus.
Box 1.1 The Evolution of Leadership
Definitions
While many have a gut-level grasp of what leadership is, putting a
definition to the term has proved to be a challenging endeavor for
scholars and practitioners alike. More than a century has lapsed since
leadership became a topic of academic introspection, and definitions
have evolved continuously during that period. These definitions have
been influenced by many factors from world affairs and politics to the
perspectives of the discipline in which the topic is being studied. In a
seminal work, Rost (1991) analyzed materials written from 1900 to
1990, finding more than 200 different definitions for leadership. His
analysis provides a succinct history of how leadership has been
defined through the last century:
1900–1929
Definitions of leadership appearing in the first three decades of the
20th century emphasized control and centralization of power with a
common theme of domination. For example, at a conference on leadership in 1927, leadership was defined as “the ability to impress the
will of the leader on those led and induce obedience, respect, loyalty,
and cooperation” (Moore, 1927, p. 124).
Defining Leadership
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
1930s
Traits became the focus of defining leadership, with an emerging view
of leadership as influence rather than domination. Leadership was
also identified as the interaction of an individual’s specific personality
traits with those of a group; it was noted that while the attitudes and
activities of the many may be changed by the one, the many may also
influence a leader.
1940s
The group approach came into the forefront with leadership being
defined as the behavior of an individual while involved in directing
group activities (Hemphill, 1949). At the same time, leadership by
persuasion was distinguished from “drivership” or leadership by coercion (Copeland, 1942).
1950s
Three themes dominated leadership definitions during this decade:
• continuance of group theory, which framed leadership as what
leaders do in groups;
• leadership as a relationship that develops shared goals, which
defined leadership based on behavior of the leader; and
• effectiveness, in which leadership was defined by the ability to
influence overall group effectiveness.
1960s
Although a tumultuous time for world affairs, the 1960s saw harmony
amongst leadership scholars. The prevailing definition of leadership
as behavior that influences people toward shared goals was underscored by Seeman (1960) who described leadership as “acts by persons
which influence other persons in a shared direction” (p. 53).
1970s
The group focus gave way to the organizational behavior approach,
where leadership became viewed as “initiating and maintaining groups
or organizations to accomplish group or organizational goals” (Rost,
1991, p. 59). Burns’s (1978) definition, however, was the most important
concept of leadership to emerge: “Leadership is the reciprocal process
(Continued)
Leadership in Nursing
4 Leadership Theory and Practice
(Continued)
of mobilizing by persons with certain motives and values, various economic, political, and other resources, in a context of competition and
conflict, in order to realize goals independently or mutually held by
both leaders and followers” (p. 425).
1980s
This decade exploded with scholarly and popular works on the nature
of leadership, bringing the topic to the apex of the academic and
public consciousnesses. As a result, the number of definitions for leadership became a prolific stew with several persevering themes:
• Do as the leader wishes. Leadership definitions still predominantly delivered the message that leadership is getting followers
to do what the leader wants done.
• Influence. Probably the most often used word in leadership
definitions of the 1980s, influence was examined from every
angle. In an effort to distinguish leadership from management, however, scholars insisted that leadership is noncoercive
influence.
• Traits. Spurred by the national best seller In Search of Excellence
(Peters & Waterman, 1982), the leadership-as-excellence movement brought leader traits back to the spotlight. As a result,
many people’s understanding of leadership is based on a trait
orientation.
• Transformation. Burns (1978) is credited for initiating a movement defining leadership as a transformational process, stating
that leadership occurs “when one or more persons engage with
others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another
to higher levels of motivation and morality” (p. 83).
Into the 21st Century
Debate continues as to whether leadership and management are
separate processes, but emerging research emphasizes the process of
leadership, whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to
achieve a common goal, rather than developing new ways of defining
leadership. Among these emerging leadership approaches are
• authentic leadership, in which the authenticity of leaders and
their leadership is emphasized;
• spiritual leadership, which focuses on leadership that utilizes
values and sense of calling and membership to motivate
followers;
The Future of Leadership
Working Across Generations
Chapter 1 Introduction 5
• servant leadership, which puts the leader in the role of servant,
who utilizes “caring principles” to focus on followers’ needs to
help these followers become more autonomous, knowledgeable, and like servants themselves; and
• adaptive leadership, in which leaders encourage followers to
adapt by confronting and solving problems, challenges, and
changes.
After decades of dissonance, leadership scholars agree on one
thing: They can’t come up with a common definition for leadership.
Because of such factors as growing global influences and generational
differences, leadership will continue to have different meanings for
different people. The bottom line is that leadership is a complex concept for which a determined definition may long be in flux.
Source: Adapted from Leadership for the Twenty-First Century, by J. C. Rost, 1991,
New York: Praeger.
Ways of Conceptualizing Leadership
In the past 60 years, as many as 65 different classification systems have been
developed to define the dimension
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