Essay Grade

Chapter 14 Application of Theories
Application of Theories to Practice
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should be based on critical reflection
helps address all aspects of the person and the environment
allows making a good fit to various system levels, social work values, and empirical evidence
provides a wide repertoire for helping in various fields
draws on great intellectual contributions to understanding human behavior
opens possibilities for innovation in social work
The wide range of human behavior theories presents a formidable but necessary challenge to the
practitioner: how to decide which theory or theories to apply in any given situation. Chapters
1through 13 have provided both a foundation of theoretical knowledge and critical evaluation of
theories, so that students and practitioners have a variety of options. This final chapter builds on
this foundation by providing guidelines to help social workers decide which theories to use in
practice.
Realistically, in actual social work practice, it is up to the practitioner and agency, in
collaboration with the clients as individuals and groups, to decide what theories are appropriate.
The preferences of educators, and the authors of this book in particular, are not very significant
in that decision. The worker’s collaboration with the client is most critical. As we stressed
in Chapter 1, “the map is not the territory.” In practice, the most crucial reality is not any
theoretical preconception, but rather the person-to-person encounter with clients in a real
situation. In keeping with the strengths perspective, it is from the reality of any particular helping
situation, especially the goals, aspirations, strengths, and perspectives of clients, that the helping
approach should emerge. For example, hundreds of empirical studies have shown that the
particular theory or practice model chosen is not the only key to client satisfaction and positive
outcomes in clinical practice and sometimes it is not the main key (Messer & Wampold,
2006). In general, the quality of the helping relationship appears to account for variance in
outcomes from 7% to 30% (Cooper, 2004). Three of the strongest factors are a collaborative
relationship between client and therapist, consensus and cooperation on treatment goals, and
practitioner empathy. This is demonstrated behaviorally when a social worker seeks clear
ongoing feedback from clients about the helping relationship and progress toward outcomes,
responds authentically to the feedback, and continually strives to improve performance
throughout her or his career (S. D. Miller, Hubble, & Duncan, 2008). The helping relationship
should demonstrate humanity, empathy, rapport, and genuine caring (Canda & Furman, 2010).
Education about theory should help prepare the practitioner to engage in a skillfully caring
helping relationship. Theory should not constrain or coerce the relationship.
Education in social work theory and practice skills is analogous to the education of a musician in
that both musical theory and technical performing skills need to be mastered. However, if that is
all a musician knows, then the performance will be technically excellent but aesthetically dull
and lifeless. But when the musician has also a rapport with the musical score and the instrument
and is inspired by a love for music, then the performer transcends the limitations of theory and
skill to express the musical score with passion, spontaneity, and creativity. Indeed, in that
moment of inspired performance, the theory and skill are, in a sense, forgotten at the same time
that they give form to the beauty and spontaneity of the music. To achieve such a harmonious
expression of theory, skill, and spontaneity, the performer must engage in a continuous process
of training, self-reflection, and performance. In social work, this quality of rapport, harmony, and
spontaneous insight during helping is often called practice wisdom (Krill, 1990).
In our view, there is no dichotomy between theory and practice application. Rather, there should
be a harmonious interplay between thinking and activity, analysis and intuition, planning and
spontaneity (Canda & Furman, 2010).
Alternative Approaches to Theory Selection
To help the reader make this link between theory and practice, we offer some
suggestions about selecting and applying theories. First of all, we caution against three
approaches to theory sometimes promoted in social work. One approach is simply
to reject theory as useless or irrelevant. As we mentioned in the opening chapter, we
believe this position is untenable because all social work practice is informed by values,
ideology, assumptions about human nature and behavior, and the organizational
structure of service delivery. To ignore this does not enhance practice; instead, it
increases the risk of imposing unwitting or hidden agendas on clients.
The second approach to avoid is theoretical dogmatism. Some practitioners hold on to a
particular theory as though it were an absolute truth that can explain and be applied to
everything. Thus, there are social workers who are exclusively loyal Freudians,
behaviorists, Jungians, radical feminists, ego psychologists, ecosystems followers, and
so on. Such an approach obscures the fact that all theories are social constructions
and, as such, have limitations and constraints. Theories are simplifications of reality.
Theoretical dogmatism reduces all clients and situations into whatever terms are
comfortable to the self-styled expert practitioner. For example, a dogmatic Bowenian
family therapist insists on doing genograms with everyone who comes through the door.
A dogmatic ego psychology–based social worker is keen to identify the stage of
development each client presents and to explore unresolved issues from childhood,
whether or not this approach fits the client’s present needs. With theoretical dogmatism,
the reality of the client becomes submerged in the theoretical assumptions of the
practitioner.
The third approach we caution against is undisciplined eclecticism. Some social workers
recognize the importance of theory but have not achieved a sufficient grasp of any particular
theory. They may mix and match whatever bits from different theories and practice approaches
they may have encountered. If this process of combining theories is not systematic, selfreflective, well grounded in evidence, and centered in clients’ goals and perspectives, it is
controlling like the dogmatic approach and it is also less disciplined and well informed.
We propose an approach that is substantially different from ignoring theory, dogmatically
adhering to a theory, or choosing a theory in a willy-nilly fashion. In this book, we have
promoted the critically reflective approach to theory. The critically reflective approach involves
cultivating clear awareness about one’s own values, goals, practice commitments, strengths, and
limitations. It also involves developing a thorough knowledge of a wide range of theories that
deal with the whole person and the environment. It requires making informed evaluations about
the strengths and shortcomings of each theory, and it requires careful professional discernment
about the relevancy of theories to a particular situation in collaboration with the client.
In the following sections, we summarize the particular contributions of the schools of theory
covered in this book. The reader should return to each chapter for a more detailed discussion of
the theories within these schools and the critical analysis at the end of each chapter. It is also
important to remember that most theories have implications for all aspects of human behavior,
either directly or indirectly. However, theories have distinctive emphases and relevancy, and it is
the distinctive emphasis of each theory that is used for this comparison. This discussion helps
summarize and organize the previous presentations of theories to assist the reader in making
decisions about how to select a particular theory or to integrate aspects of different theories in a
systematic manner.
The discussion also considers how the theories measure up to the critical themes for theory
evaluation presented in Chapter 1, the varying emphases on aspects of the person and
environment in each theory, and the fundamental great ideas of each school of thought that have
made a significant impact on social work and the understanding of human behavior. Then a
practice situation is used to illustrate the process and implications of selecting various theories to
apply in a particular instance. Finally, emerging trends of innovative thinking about human
behavior are discussed to reflect on possible “roads from here” toward future innovation in
theory development.
Measuring Up to the Themes for Critical Reflection on
Theories
Person and Environment
A defining characteristic of the social work profession is its commitment to address holistically
both people and their environmental contexts. Therefore, the first major theme we consider is the
relevance of theories to the biological, psychological, social relational, and spiritual aspects of
the individual as well as the surrounding cultural, political, economic, ideological, and physical
environment. The review of theories in this book has expanded beyond the common bio-psychosocial definition of person-in-environment to include spirituality, ideology, political economy,
and the total planetary ecology. We also do not give primacy to the person over the environment
or to the individual over the group, as is common in many discussions of human behavior in
social work. We do not give priority to either the person or the environment, but rather we see
person and environment as inextricably related.
This, of course, does not mean that in every social work activity, practitioners need to address
every aspect of the person and the environment. However, it does mean that we need to
be cognizant of the entire person and environment constellation to identify the most relevant
aspects of the person; the social, cultural, economic, and political systems; and the natural
environment. Therefore, in planning practice, it is helpful to consider which theories have the
most to say about particular aspects of the person and the environment for a given situation.
Indeed, it is important to consider which theories help one think and act in such a holistic way.
Once we are familiar with this repertoire of theories, we can begin to make decisions about
which theories or aspects of theories might be applied in a particular practice situation.
To assist this, Figures 14.1 and 14.2 show which theories emphasize various aspects of the
person and environment. Some theories address many aspects and some are more specialized.
For example, Wilber’s Integral Theory attempts to address all aspects through the AQAL (All
Quadrants, All Levels) model. Among psychodynamic theories, Jung addressed more aspects of
the individual than did Freud. Dynamic systems theory, deep ecology, and ecofeminism attempt
to integrate a wide range of human and nonhuman systems, whereas cognitive theories focus on
the rational, intellectual aspects of human mental functioning. The designations in these
diagrams were derived from the authors’ assessments and discussions with students who were
asked to provide appraisals of the theories that have been most helpful to them with various
aspects of human experience. The shapes of the diagrams are based on the mandala and similar
symbols such as the Medicine Wheel (see Chapters 6 and 13) in order to show that all these
aspects of the person and environment are interconnected. The mandala is a symbol used to
depict the harmonious, organic, and cyclic integration of contrasting qualities. Ideally,
contrasting aspects can be recognized as complementary and all aspects can be mutually
supportive. Therefore, insights from various theories that emphasize different aspects of the
person could be integrated to provide a more complete understanding of the person and
environment, as long as their principles and practice approaches are consistent with each other.
Traditional mandala and Medicine Wheel symbols show many culture-specific variations and
arrangements of aspects of human experience. Although our diagrams are not directly related to
any of these traditional symbols, we are indebted to the insights on holistic perspective in Asian
and Indigenous cultures (Canda & Furman, 2010; Dumbrill & Green, 2008; Jung,
1959b; Lee, Ng, Leung, & Chan, 2009; Nabigon & Mawhiney, 1996; Verniest, 2006).
We are using the mandala as a heuristic device to help the reader visualize the possibility of
integrating various theories to achieve a comprehensive understanding of people and their
environments.
To highlight the importance of both person and environment, and the possibility of engaging
micro and macro systems in practice, we have developed two mandalas of human behavior
theories. The first (Figure 14.1) addresses person-focused theories as well as macro theories
with particular relevance to individuals. The second (Figure 14.2) addresses environmentfocused theories as well as micro theories with particular relevance to macro
systems. Figure 14.1 also shows theories that focus on the interface between person and
environment, including its social and planetary ecological dimensions. In these diagrams, a
theory may be listed either as a general school (e.g., conflict) or as one version within a school
(e.g., Marxian).
Person-Focused Theories
Figure 14.1 depicts the mandala of person-focused human behavior theories. In the eastern
position, metaphorically the place of sunrise and the beginnings of life, we place the biological
aspect. From conception and birth through early childhood, the physical and biological frame of
the person develops. Due to the relationships of the child to its mother and significant others at
the time of emergence and the vigorous expansion of relationships through adolescence, we
place the social relational aspect of the person (i.e., the need for connection and belonging) in the
next clockwise position, in the south. Social interactions shape continuing biological
development as well as the formation of psychological processes. In the west, we place the
psychological aspect, in complementary contrast with the biological. The psychological aspect
includes such mental activities as thinking, feeling, and intuiting. In the north, we place the
spiritual aspect, in complementary relation with social relations. Preoccupation with spirituality
often emerges in later life, as issues of mortality and death become more prominent. North
represents the season of winter, during which people tend to become more inward and selfreflective. In contrast, the focus on the social relational aspect of the person (in the south)
involves an outward movement of the person’s attention to social interaction, similar to the
expansion of growth in summer. The center position is the meeting point, or integration, of all
other aspects of the person in transaction with the environment. Theories that focus on the
holistic or integrated quality of the person are included here. These theories also emphasize the
spiritual aspect, because a major theme of spirituality is how we work out a sense of meaning,
purpose, and integrity as a whole person. Surrounding this wheel is the field of the total
environment, including the political, economic, and sociocultural context, the planetary
ecosystem, and the universe. The encompassing environment transacts with all aspects
of the person.
Environment-Focused Theories
Figure 14.2 depicts the mandala of environment-focused human behavior theories.
Each direction in this mandala relates to themes analogous at a macro level to the
themes described in Figure14.1. These themes are relevant to all human groups,
organizations, communities, and societies, as well as the international web of societies,
keeping in mind that all these are interwoven with local and planetary ecosystems.
In the east, we place the physical aspect of macro systems, including humanly
constructed technological systems and living environments as well as the natural
planetary ecosystem of which we are a part. In the south, we place the cosmological
aspect of human communities. Cosmology relates to the ways in which groups of
people understand, feel, think, and act about their interconnections with each other, the
world, and the universe. In the first mandala, the south position related to how
individuals express their relational needs with others. In the environment-focused
mandala, the south position deals with how communities and larger social systems
express their relational needs with individual members and with each other. In the west,
we place the ideological aspect of communities and societies. All communities and
societies form systems of norms and fundamental values that serve to rationalize and
organize themselves, especially in political and economic terms. In the north, we place
the ontological aspect, which is analogous to the spiritual aspect of
individuals. Ontologyrefers to the way in which groups, communities, and societies form
worldviews, philosophies, and religious systems that address notions about reality, the
ultimate reality, the possibility of divine or nonphysical aspects of the universe as well as
philosophical ideas about the purpose and place of human beings in the cosmos. In the
center, we place integrative theories that attempt to link these macro aspects with an
understanding of the connection between people and the environment.
It is important to note that these mandalas should only be used as metaphors. We do
not wish to imply that there is a linear progression of development through these
aspects or that they are separate from each other. In his adaptation of the Medicine
Wheel for use in substance abuse recovery, Coggins (1990) pointed out that, at any
given point in time, a person or social group may focus on any or all of these aspects. In
fact, there may be movement in all directions around and within the wheel. Ideally,
people work out a sense of completeness and integration in relation with the world
through this process.
Relevance to System Levels, Values, Philosophy, and Empirical Support
In Tables 14.1 and 14.2, we list each school of theory along with our rating of how it
emphasizes the major themes for theory evaluation used throughout the text. As preparation for
reading these tables, it would be helpful for the reader to review the discussion of these themes
in Chapter 1. The explanations that follow assist reading the tables.
Tables 14.1 and 14.2 present a rating of schools of theories. The reader should use this only for
a summary of the general orientation of the theories in this book. You will recall that there are
many important distinctions and disagreements between theories within each school. It is
therefore important to consider the unique qualities of each particular theory when addressing its
use in practice. The themes for theory evaluation, presented first in Chapter 1 and,
subsequently, throughout the text, cover much more detail than can be presented in this table.
The themes have been reduced and simplified and an overall judgment about the theory’s focus
or emphasis (high, medium, low) is indicated for various contrasting characteristics within each
theme. These contrasts, however, do not represent dichotomies, and a given theory may address
various characteristics with equal or different emphases. For example, although most systems
theories attempt to address all levels of social systems with a broadly encompassing perspective,
their utility in explaining individual and small-group behavior is somewhat limited. Thus, they
are rated as high on macro systems emphasis and medium on micro/meso emphasis.
The various issues for critical reflection on theories are summarized in the two tables in terms of
four major themes: systems relevance, social work values, philosophy, and empirical support.
In Table14.1, systems relevance refers to the extent to which a theory emphasizes issues
pertaining to individuals, families, groups, or organizations (micro and meso systems, designated
here as “micro”) or communities, institutions, cultures, societies, or the global community and
planetary ecology (designated as “macro”). Theories emphasizing micro and meso systems tend
to deal more with concepts of individual, small-group, or family well-being, whereas those
emphasizing macro systems tend to deal more with issues of social justice. Social work
values refer to the degree of congruence with key professional commitments and values. This
encompasses the degree to which the theory emphasizes the importance of human diversity
(designated as “diversity”); personal and collective empowerment (designated as
“empowerment”); and consistency with the strengths perspective (designated as “strengths”).
Theories rated high in emphasis on diversity, empowerment, and strengths tend to direct social
workers toward collaboration, creative innovation, social reform, and significant change rather
than merely maintaining the psychosocial status quo.
In Table 14.2, philosophy refers to the primary philosophical orientation of the theory. Theories
that emphasize positivistic and materialistic assumptions about reality are designated as
“positivistic.” Theories that emphasize a critique of positivism and propose a more postmodern
constructivist world view are considered new paradigms (designated as “constructivist”). In this
case, we are not suggesting that all the latter theories are part of the social constructionist or
constructivist theories, per se (see chapter 11), but rather, that they attend to the relativity and
culturally shaped nature of human understanding. Empirical supportconsiders the degree to
which theories rely on and are supported by qualitative or quantitative research (designated
respectively as “qualitative” and “quantitative”), as well as the degree of conceptual rigor and
sophistication (designated as “conceptual rigor”). No theory included in this book completely
lacks relevance to any of these themes, so there is no “0” or “none” rating.
There is, of course, disagreement among scholars of human behavior about the rating of these
theories. In forming our ratings, we have tried to balance the perspectives of advocates and
critics for each theory, as discussed in each chapter. It would be most useful for readers to use
these ratings as a starting point for working out their own ratings of a particular theory by
thinking about the areas of agreement or disagreement with our ratings, as well as how their
evaluation can be supported by current evidence.
Relevance to Fields of Practice
Because various theories emphasize different aspects of human experience, it follows that they
have varying relevance to specific fields and settings of practice. This is indicated in each
chapter with tables and flowcharts that give examples of settings and applications to practice. To
provide an overall summary, the major schools of theory are listed in Table 14.3 in relation to
the fields of social work practice in which they are most likely to be applied. However, this
should not imply that a theory is relevant only to these particular fields of practice, but rather that
this is a major emphasis or common use. Indeed, proponents of Integral Theory view it as being
relevant to all fields of practice (Esbjorn-Hargens, 2009)
Twelve Great Ideas
Another way to sort through the myriad theories is to think about the most compelling
ideas they have contributed to social work. Rather than an analytical look at the
particular details of each theory, this is a broad-brush painting of the major picture of the
world presented by a theory. We suggest that these major insights are important to
consider as each of us shapes his or her own understandings of the world and social
work practice. In this section we summarize 12 great ideas culled from the schools of
theory presented in this book.
Systems Theories: Everything Is Connected
Although various systems theories disagree about the nature of social systems and social change,
they all agree on one powerful insight: that everything is connected. This insight has influenced
profoundly the person and environment perspective of social work. In practice, we choose a
focal system as client and we focus change activities on particular target systems. We often use
genograms and ecomaps to examine significant relationships between people and institutions.
And, more recently, we have begun to consider the macro environment of geopolitics and
planetary ecology. No matter where we and clients choose to focus our work, we cannot forget to
consider the effect of other systems on ourselves and the effect of our work on other systems. For
example, if, in collaboration with a psychiatrist, we recommend an antianxiety medication for a
highly anxious client, we know that we must also consider whether there are internal
psychological conflicts or external environmental conditions that may be exacerbating the
anxiety. Therefore, rather than seeking panaceas, we are seeking systemic solutions.
Social work practice in its fullest sense is never just psychotherapy with the individual, group, or
family, although it may include psychodynamic or family systems interactions. Likewise, social
work practice in its fullest sense is never just institutional change; it must consider the impact of
such change on individuals, groups, families, larger communities, and the natural environment.
Even though an individual social worker may not be able to address all relevant aspects of the
person and environment, systems theories support collaborative work with social workers and
other professional helpers who specialize in a variety of areas as well as with other formal and
informal support systems to create a comprehensive systems approach.
Conflict Theories: Social Justice Requires Social Change
Conflict theories highlight two claims: All societies perpetuate some forms of oppression and
injustice, and, therefore, our commitment to social justice requires constant attention to
oppression and diligent efforts to resist and overcome this oppression. Necessarily, confronting
entrenched institutions, policies, programs, and individual behaviors generates conflict. Although
this can be highly uncomfortable, and sometimes even dangerous, conflict theories remind us
that conflict is a driving force of social change. Conflict theories call social workers to pay
attention to oppression, especially in its systemic and institutional forms, and to form strategies
for overcoming it. They also challenge us to deal with the dilemmas that confront us as members
of an institutionalized helping profession. Although we are committed to social change, we owe
our existence and resources to the very social institutions and governmental and private social
agencies that we may need to challenge.
Empowerment Theories: Consciousness-Raising and Collective Action
Empowerment theories in social work have arisen from our profession’s commitment to social
justice. They extend the broad insights of conflict theory and add particular focus to specific
forms of oppression such as those based on gender, social class, age, disability, sexual
orientation, race, and ethnicity. They highlight the ways in which stratification creates structural
blocks to opportunity and well-being. Empowerment theories in social work add the important
insight that significant social change requires the joining together of all people committed to
justice in a process of both consciousness raising and practical individual and collective action.
To avoid the pitfalls of “blaming the victim” and assuming a “victim mentality,” empowerment
directs us to build on people’s strengths, capacities, and resources to help them accomplish their
personal and collective goals and aspirations.
Feminist Theory: Connections Between the Personal and the Political
Feminist theory provides a mode of analysis for social work that emphasizes gender and the
ways in which patriarchy creates and maintains gender-based stratification and oppression. It
offers a holistic view of the interrelationships between material, social, intellectual, and
spiritual facets of human existence. Feminist theory connects the personal and political and
supports women and other oppressed groups in identifying the attitudes, expectations, language,
behaviors, and social arrangements that have contributed to the oppression and marginalization
of people. At its core, it is a theory of power relations that assists social workers in critical
analysis, generating and producing knowledge, and promoting political engagement for the
purpose of achieving economic, political, and social equality.
Culture, Multiculturalism, Cultural Adaptation, and Competence
Theories about culture illuminate the fact that all social work practice is mediated by culture and
involves interaction across cultural differences. Culture mediates all person and environment
transactions because it is the socially woven fabric of meaning, life ways, and social institutions
that defines what it is to be a person and a member of a social group and how people relate to the
environment. Theories about culture and cultural adaptation also illustrate the ways in which the
dominant society often defines cultural difference as deficiency; they illuminate the tremendous
variation in cultural beliefs and norms and emphasize the potential hazards and promises of
cross-cultural interaction. In the social work practice context, these theories remind us that
cultural diversity and varying modes of cultural adaptation are a fact of life. They guide
practitioners in developing culturally competent ways of understanding their clients and
engaging in practice.
Psychodynamics and the Inner World
Psychodynamic theories contribute two enduring major insights: First, that there is an
interconnection between the mind and the body; and second, that human behavior may partially
be shaped by an inner world of mental processes of which we are often unaware. Psychodynamic
theories alert social workers to pay attention to both the mind–body connection and to internal
mental processes. They also encourage us to be self-reflective, to aid clients in being selfreflective, and to consider how internal processes interact with the social environment. All
psychodynamic theories emphasize that introspection and self-reflective dialogue can engender
insight and personal growth. They also suggest that accomplishing major personal change can
entail hard, prolonged work. Despite the many limitations of classical psychodynamic theories,
some of their basic ideas are still compelling and imply caution against reducing all clinical
social work practice to only short-term, task-oriented activity.
Growth and Development Throughout the Life Span
Life span theories have made an important contribution to social work by describing and
analyzing interactions between biological, psychological, and social aspects of development
from conception to death. They suggest that experience accumulated by meeting life’s challenges
can generate personal talents, strengths, and virtues, as well as distress and sense of burden. They
suggest that all people are on a life journey and that social workers can provide care and
assistance to people on this journey, provide them with help when they are down, and encourage
them along the way. Life span theories emphasize that all phases of life can present important
opportunities and challenges for growth and that learning and growth are always possible.
Cognitive and Moral Development
Cognitive and moral development theories emphasize rational, moral, intellectual, and faith
development throughout life. They describe intellectual growth as a process in which people
strive to make sense of new intellectual challenges and moral dilemmas. Meeting each new
challenge requires formation of a more comprehensive and sophisticated way of thinking that
can include the previous ways but is not limited to them. As one matures intellectually and
morally, one moves beyond egocentrism to an intellectual, moral, and spiritual perspective that
appreciates other people’s points of view and that can accommodate them within one’s own
point of view. Cognitive and moral development theories remind social workers to consider how
we form our own decisions, how we think about clients, and how we inform our practice with a
moral framework of professional values and ethics. They a